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Copepod

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<th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)">Copepod <div style="font-size: 85%;">Temporal range:

Likely early <a href="Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a> origin</div>

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<th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; min-width:15em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Scientific classification</a>

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<td>Kingdom:

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<td><a href="Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a>

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<td>Phylum:

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<td><a href="Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropoda</a>

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<td>Superclass:

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<td><a href="Multicrustacea" title="Multicrustacea">Multicrustacea</a>

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<td>Class:

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<td> <a href="Henri_Milne-Edwards" title="Henri Milne-Edwards">H. Milne-Edwards</a>, 1840

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<th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)">Orders

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<ul><li><a href="Calanoida" title="Calanoida">Calanoida</a></li>

<li><a href="Canuelloida" class="mw-redirect" title="Canuelloida">Canuelloida</a></li>

<li><a href="Cyclopoida" title="Cyclopoida">Cyclopoida</a></li>

<li><a href="Gelyelloida" class="mw-redirect" title="Gelyelloida">Gelyelloida</a></li>

<li><a href="Harpacticoida" title="Harpacticoida">Harpacticoida</a></li>

<li><a href="Misophrioida" title="Misophrioida">Misophrioida</a></li>

<li><a href="Monstrilloida" class="mw-redirect" title="Monstrilloida">Monstrilloida</a></li>

<li><a href="Mormonilloida" class="mw-redirect" title="Mormonilloida">Mormonilloida</a></li>

<li><a href="Platycopioida" class="mw-redirect" title="Platycopioida">Platycopioida</a></li>

<li><a href="Siphonostomatoida" title="Siphonostomatoida">Siphonostomatoida</a></li></ul>

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Copepods (/ˈkoʊpəpɒd/; meaning 'oar-feet') are a group of small <a href="Crustacean" title="Crustacean">crustaceans</a> found in nearly every <a href="Freshwater" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater">freshwater</a> and <a href="Saltwater" class="mw-redirect" title="Saltwater">saltwater</a> <a href="Habitat_(ecology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Habitat (ecology)">habitat</a>. Some species are <a href="Plankton" title="Plankton">planktonic</a> (living in the water column), some are <a href="Benthos" title="Benthos">benthic</a> (living on the sediments), several species have <a href="Parasitism" title="Parasitism">parasitic phases</a>, and some continental species may live in limnoterrestrial habitats and other wet terrestrial places, such as swamps, under leaf fall in wet forests, bogs, springs, ephemeral ponds, puddles, damp moss, or water-filled recesses of plants (<a href="Phytotelmata" class="mw-redirect" title="Phytotelmata">phytotelmata</a>) such as <a href="Bromeliad" class="mw-redirect" title="Bromeliad">bromeliads</a> and <a href="Pitcher_plant" title="Pitcher plant">pitcher plants</a>. Many live underground in marine and freshwater caves, <a href="Sinkhole" title="Sinkhole">sinkholes</a>, or stream beds. Copepods are sometimes used as <a href="Ecological_indicator" title="Ecological indicator">biodiversity indicators</a>.

As with other crustaceans, copepods have a <a href="Larva" title="Larva">larval</a> form. For copepods, the egg hatches into a <a href="Crustacean_larvae" class="mw-redirect" title="Crustacean larvae">nauplius</a> form, with a head and a tail but no true thorax or abdomen. The larva molts several times until it resembles the adult and then, after more molts, achieves adult development. The nauplius form is so different from the adult form that it was once thought to be a separate species. The metamorphosis had, until 1832, led to copepods being misidentified as <a href="Zoophyte" title="Zoophyte">zoophytes</a> or <a href="Insect" title="Insect">insects</a> (albeit aquatic ones), or, for parasitic copepods, 'fish <a href="Lice" class="mw-redirect" title="Lice">lice</a>'.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification_and_diversity">Classification and diversity</h2></div>

Copepods are assigned to the <a href="Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">class</a> Copepoda within the superclass <a href="Multicrustacea" title="Multicrustacea">Multicrustacea</a> in the subphylum <a href="Crustacean" title="Crustacean">Crustacea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WoRMS-2023-2">[2]</a> An alternative treatment is as a subclass belonging to class <a href="Hexanauplia" title="Hexanauplia">Hexanauplia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WoRMS-2019-3">[3]</a> They are divided into 10 <a href="Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">orders</a>. Some 13,000 species of copepods are known, and 2,800 of them live in fresh water.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Characteristics">Characteristics</h2></div>

Copepods vary considerably, but are typically <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">

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</style>1 to 2 mm (1⁄32 to 3⁄32 in) long, with a teardrop-shaped body and large <a href="Antenna_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Antenna (biology)">antennae</a>. Like other crustaceans, they have an armoured <a href="Exoskeleton" title="Exoskeleton">exoskeleton</a>, but they are so small that in most species, this thin armour and the entire body is almost totally transparent. Some polar copepods reach 1 cm (1⁄2 in). Most copepods have a single median <a href="Compound_eye" title="Compound eye">compound eye</a>, usually bright red and in the centre of the transparent head. Subterranean species may be eyeless, and members of the genera Copilia and Corycaeus possess two eyes, each of which has a large anterior <a href="Cuticular" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuticular">cuticular</a> lens paired with a posterior internal lens to form a telescope.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> Like other crustaceans, copepods possess two pairs of antennae; the first pair is often long and conspicuous.

Free-living copepods of the orders Calanoida, Cyclopoida, and Harpacticoida typically have a short, cylindrical body, with a rounded or beaked head, although considerable variation exists in this pattern. The head is fused with the first one or two <a href="Thorax" title="Thorax">thoracic</a> segments, while the remainder of the thorax has three to five segments, each with limbs. The first pair of thoracic appendages is modified to form <a href="Maxilliped" class="mw-redirect" title="Maxilliped">maxillipeds</a>, which assist in feeding. The <a href="Abdomen" title="Abdomen">abdomen</a> is typically narrower than the thorax, and contains five segments without any appendages, except for some tail-like "rami" at the tip.<a href="#cite_note-IZ-8">[8]</a> Parasitic copepods (the other seven orders) vary widely in morphology and no generalizations are possible.

Because of their small size, copepods have no need of any <a href="Heart" title="Heart">heart</a> or circulatory system (the members of the order Calanoida have a heart, but no <a href="Blood_vessel" title="Blood vessel">blood vessels</a>), and most also lack <a href="Gill" title="Gill">gills</a>. Instead, they absorb oxygen directly into their bodies. Their excretory system consists of maxillary glands.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Behavior">Behavior</h3></div>

The second pair of cephalic appendages in free-living copepods is usually the main time-averaged source of propulsion, beating like oars to pull the animal through the water. However, different groups have different modes of feeding and locomotion, ranging from almost immotile for several minutes (e.g. some <a href="Harpacticoida" title="Harpacticoida">harpacticoid copepods</a>) to intermittent motion (e.g., some <a href="Cyclopoida" title="Cyclopoida">cyclopoid copepods</a>) and continuous displacements with some escape reactions (e.g. most <a href="Calanoida" title="Calanoida">calanoid copepods</a>).

Some copepods have extremely fast <a href="Escape_response" title="Escape response">escape responses</a> when a predator is sensed, and can jump with high speed over a few millimetres. Many species have <a href="Neuron" title="Neuron">neurons</a> surrounded by <a href="Myelin" title="Myelin">myelin</a> (for increased conduction speed), which is very rare among <a href="Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a> (other examples are some <a href="Annelid" title="Annelid">annelids</a> and <a href="Malacostraca" title="Malacostraca">malacostracan</a> crustaceans like <a href="Palaemonidae" title="Palaemonidae">palaemonid</a> shrimp and <a href="Penaeidae" title="Penaeidae">penaeids</a>). Even rarer, the myelin is highly organized, resembling the well-organized wrapping found in vertebrates (<a href="Gnathostomata" title="Gnathostomata">Gnathostomata</a>). Despite their fast escape response, copepods are successfully hunted by slow-swimming <a href="Seahorse" title="Seahorse">seahorses</a>, which approach their prey so gradually, it senses no turbulence, then suck the copepod into their snout too suddenly for the copepod to escape.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a>

Several species are <a href="Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">bioluminescent</a> and able to produce light. It is assumed this is an antipredatory defense mechanism.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a>

Finding a mate in the <a href="Three-dimensional_space" title="Three-dimensional space">three-dimensional space</a> of open water is challenging. Some copepod females solve the problem by emitting <a href="Pheromone" title="Pheromone">pheromones</a>, which leave a trail in the water that the male can follow.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Copepods experience a low <a href="Reynolds_number" title="Reynolds number">Reynolds number</a> and therefore a high relative viscosity. One foraging strategy involves chemical detection of sinking <a href="Marine_snow" title="Marine snow">marine snow</a> aggregates and taking advantage of nearby low-pressure gradients to swim quickly towards food sources.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a>

Most free-living copepods feed directly on <a href="Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a>, catching cells individually. A single copepod can consume up to 373,000 phytoplankton per day.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> They generally have to clear the equivalent to about a million times their own body volume of water every day to cover their nutritional needs.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> Some of the larger species are predators of their smaller relatives. Many benthic copepods eat organic detritus or the bacteria that grow in it, and their mouth parts are adapted for scraping and biting. Herbivorous copepods, particularly those in rich, cold seas, store up energy from their food as oil droplets while they feed in the spring and summer on <a href="Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">plankton blooms</a>. These droplets may take up over half of the volume of their bodies in polar species. Many copepods (e.g., fish lice like the <a href="Siphonostomatoida" title="Siphonostomatoida">Siphonostomatoida</a>) are parasites, and feed on their host organisms. In fact, three of the 10 known orders of copepods are wholly or largely parasitic, with another three comprising most of the free-living species.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Life_cycle">Life cycle</h3></div>

Most nonparasitic copepods are holoplanktonic, meaning they stay planktonic for all of their lifecycles, although harpacticoids, although free-living, tend to be benthic rather than planktonic.

During mating, the male copepod grips the female with his first pair of antennae, which is sometimes modified for this purpose. The male then produces an adhesive <a href="Spermatophore" title="Spermatophore">package of sperm</a> and transfers it to the female's genital opening with his thoracic limbs. Eggs are sometimes laid directly into the water, but many species enclose them within a sac attached to the female's body until they hatch. In some pond-dwelling species, the eggs have a tough shell and can lie dormant for extended periods if the pond dries up.<a href="#cite_note-IZ-8">[8]</a>

Eggs hatch into nauplius larvae, which consist of a head with a small <a href="Telson" title="Telson">tail</a>, but no thorax or true abdomen. The nauplius moults five or six times, before emerging as a "copepodid larva". This stage resembles the adult, but has a simple, unsegmented abdomen and only three pairs of thoracic limbs. After a further five moults, the copepod takes on the adult form. The entire process from hatching to adulthood can take a week to a year, depending on the species and environmental conditions such as temperature and nutrition (e.g., egg-to-adult time in the calanoid Parvocalanus crassirostris is ~7 days at 25 °C (77 °F) but 19 days at 15 °C (59 °F).<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biophysics">Biophysics</h3></div>

Copepods jump out of the water - porpoising. The biophysics of this motion has been described by Waggett and Buskey 2007 and Kim et al 2015.<a href="#cite_note-Kim-et-al-2017-17">[17]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ecology">Ecology</h2></div>

Planktonic copepods are important to global <a href="Ecology" title="Ecology">ecology</a> and the <a href="Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">carbon cycle</a>. They are usually the dominant members of the <a href="Zooplankton" title="Zooplankton">zooplankton</a>, and are major food organisms for small <a href="Fish" title="Fish">fish</a> such as the <a href="Dragonet" title="Dragonet">dragonet</a>, <a href="Banded_killifish" title="Banded killifish">banded killifish</a>, <a href="Alaska_pollock" title="Alaska pollock">Alaska pollock</a>, and other crustaceans such as <a href="Krill" title="Krill">krill</a> in the ocean and in fresh water. Some scientists say they form the largest animal <a href="Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a> on earth.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> Copepods compete for this title with <a href="Antarctic_krill" title="Antarctic krill">Antarctic krill</a> (Euphausia superba). C. glacialis inhabits the edge of the Arctic icepack, especially in <a href="Polynya" title="Polynya">polynyas</a> where light (and photosynthesis) is present, in which they alone comprise up to 80% of zooplankton biomass. They bloom as the ice recedes each spring. The ongoing large reduction in the annual ice pack minimum may force them to compete in the open ocean with the much less nourishing C. finmarchicus, which is spreading from the North Sea and the Norwegian Sea into the Barents Sea.<a href="#cite_note-pity-20">[20]</a>

Because of their smaller size and relatively faster growth rates, and because they are more evenly distributed throughout more of the world's oceans, copepods almost certainly contribute far more to the <a href="Secondary_productivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary productivity">secondary productivity</a> of the world's oceans, and to the global ocean <a href="Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sink</a> than krill, and perhaps more than all other groups of organisms together. The surface layers of the oceans are believed to be the world's largest carbon sink, absorbing about 2 billion tons of carbon a year, the equivalent to perhaps a third of <a href="Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">human carbon emissions</a>, thus reducing their impact. Many planktonic copepods feed near the surface at night, then sink (by changing oils into more <a href="Density" title="Density">dense</a> fats)<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> into deeper water during the day to avoid visual predators. Their moulted <a href="Exoskeleton" title="Exoskeleton">exoskeletons</a>, <a href="Feces" title="Feces">faecal</a> pellets, and <a href="Respiration_(physiology)" title="Respiration (physiology)">respiration</a> at depth all bring <a href="Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> to the deep sea.

About half of the estimated 14,000 described species of copepods are <a href="Parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasite">parasitic</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a>

<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> and many have adapted extremely modified bodies for their parasitic lifestyles.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a>

They attach themselves to bony fish, sharks, marine mammals, and many kinds of invertebrates such as corals, other crustaceans, molluscs, sponges, and tunicates. They also live as ectoparasites on some freshwater fish.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Copepods_as_parasitic_hosts">Copepods as parasitic hosts</h3></div>

In addition to being parasites themselves, copepods are subject to parasitic infection. The most common parasites are marine <a href="Dinoflagellate" title="Dinoflagellate">dinoflagellates</a> of the genus <a href="Blastodinium" title="Blastodinium">Blastodinium</a>, which are gut parasites of many copepod species.<a href="#cite_note-name-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-name1-28">[28]</a> Twelve species of Blastodinium are described, the majority of which were discovered in the <a href="Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-name-27">[27]</a> Most Blastodinium species infect several different hosts, but species-specific infection of copepods does occur. Generally, adult copepod females and juveniles are infected.

During the naupliar stage, the copepod host ingests the unicellular <a href="Dinospore" title="Dinospore">dinospore</a> of the parasite. The dinospore is not digested and continues to grow inside the intestinal lumen of the copepod. Eventually, the parasite divides into a multicellular arrangement called a trophont.<a href="#cite_note-name2-29">[29]</a> This trophont is considered parasitic, contains thousands of cells, and can be several hundred micrometers in length.<a href="#cite_note-name1-28">[28]</a> The trophont is greenish to brownish in color as a result of well-defined <a href="Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplasts</a>. At maturity, the trophont ruptures and Blastodinium spp. are released from the copepod anus as free dinospore cells. Not much is known about the dinospore stage of Blastodinium and its ability to persist outside of the copepod host in relatively high abundances.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a>

The copepod Calanus finmarchicus, which dominates the northeastern <a href="Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic coast</a>, has been shown to be greatly infected by this parasite. A 2014 study in this region found up to 58% of collected C. finmarchicus females to be infected. In this study, Blastodinium-infected females had no measurable feeding rate over a 24-hour period. This is compared to uninfected females which, on average, ate 2.93 × 104 cells per day.<a href="#cite_note-name2-29">[29]</a> Blastodinium-infected females of C. finmarchicus exhibited characteristic signs of starvation, including decreased <a href="Respiration_(physiology)" title="Respiration (physiology)">respiration</a>, fecundity, and fecal pellet production. Though <a href="Photosynthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photosynthetic">photosynthetic</a>, Blastodinium spp. procure most of their energy from organic material in the copepod gut, thus contributing to host starvation.<a href="#cite_note-name1-28">[28]</a> Underdeveloped or disintegrated <a href="Ovary" title="Ovary">ovaries</a> and decreased fecal pellet size are a direct result of starvation in female copepods.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> Parasitic infection by Blastodinium spp. could have serious ramifications on the success of copepod species and the function of entire <a href="Marine_ecosystems" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine ecosystems">marine ecosystems</a>. Blastodinium parasitism is not lethal, but has negative impacts on copepod physiology, which in turn may alter <a href="Marine_biogeochemical_cycles" title="Marine biogeochemical cycles">marine biogeochemical cycles</a>.

Freshwater copepods of the <a href="Cyclops_(genus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyclops (genus)">Cyclops</a> genus are the intermediate host of the <a href="Guinea_worm" class="mw-redirect" title="Guinea worm">Guinea worm</a> (<a href="Dracunculus_medinensis" title="Dracunculus medinensis">Dracunculus medinensis</a>), the <a href="Nematode" title="Nematode">nematode</a> that causes <a href="Dracunculiasis" title="Dracunculiasis">dracunculiasis</a> disease in humans. This disease may be close to being eradicated through efforts by the U.S. <a href="Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a>, the <a href="World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a>, and the <a href="Carter_Center" title="Carter Center">Carter Center</a>.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a>

Copepods are known hosts of <a href="Vibrio" title="Vibrio">Vibrio</a> bacteria, including pathogenic species. The Vibrio attach to the copepod's chitinous carapace, wearing it away to create a niche to stay. They are more protected from ecological stressors when attached to copepods and have an easy dispersal method. Vibrio are not known to infect copepods, but the degradation of the carapace is presumably detrimental to the copepod.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a>

Copepods are infected by a variety of <a href="Marine_fungi" title="Marine fungi">marine fungi</a> including <a href="Metschnikowia" title="Metschnikowia">Metschnikowia</a> species, and this can be lethal. They are also parasitized by <a href="Cestoda" title="Cestoda">tapeworms</a>, <a href="Isopoda" title="Isopoda">isopods</a>, and many kinds of protist, including Ellobiopsidae, <a href="Ciliate" title="Ciliate">Ciliates</a>, and <a href="Apicomplexa" title="Apicomplexa">Sporozoans</a>.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolution">Evolution</h2></div>

Despite their modern abundance, due to their small size and fragility, copepods are extremely rare in the fossil record. The oldest known fossils of copepods are from the late <a href="Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous</a> (<a href="Pennsylvanian_(geology)" title="Pennsylvanian (geology)">Pennsylvanian</a>) of <a href="Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a>, around 303 million years old, which were found in a clast of <a href="Bitumen" title="Bitumen">bitumen</a> from a glacial <a href="Diamictite" title="Diamictite">diamictite</a>. The copepods present in the bitumen clast were likely residents of a <a href="Subglacial_lake" title="Subglacial lake">subglacial lake</a> which the bitumen had seeped upwards through while still liquid, before the clast subsequently solidified and was deposited by glaciers. Though most of the remains were undiagnostic, at least some likely belonged to the extant harpacticoid family <a href="Canthocamptidae" title="Canthocamptidae">Canthocamptidae</a>, suggesting that copepods had already substantially diversified by this time.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Possible microfossils of copepods are known from the <a href="Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</a> of North America.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> Transitions to parasitism have occurred within copepods independently at least 14 different times, with the oldest record of this being from damage to fossil <a href="Sea_urchin" title="Sea urchin">echinoids</a> done by cyclopoids from the Middle <a href="Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a> of <a href="France" title="France">France</a>, around 168 million years old.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Practical_aspects">Practical aspects</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_marine_aquaria">In marine aquaria</h3></div>

Live copepods are used in the saltwater aquarium hobby as a food source and are generally considered beneficial in most reef tanks. They are scavengers and also may feed on algae, including <a href="Coralline_algae" title="Coralline algae">coralline algae</a>. Live copepods are popular among hobbyists who are attempting to keep particularly difficult species such as the <a href="Mandarin_dragonet" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandarin dragonet">mandarin dragonet</a> or <a href="Scooter_blenny" class="mw-redirect" title="Scooter blenny">scooter blenny</a>. They are also popular to hobbyists who want to breed marine species in captivity. In a saltwater aquarium, copepods are typically stocked in the <a href="Refugium_(fishkeeping)" title="Refugium (fishkeeping)">refugium</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Water_supplies">Water supplies</h3></div>

Copepods are sometimes found in public main water supplies, especially systems where the water is not mechanically filtered,<a href="#cite_note-timesept2010-40">[40]</a> such as <a href="New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>, <a href="Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>, and <a href="San_Francisco" title="San Francisco">San Francisco</a>.<a href="#cite_note-timesjul2006-41">[41]</a> This is not usually a problem in treated water supplies. In some tropical countries, such as <a href="Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a> and <a href="Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>, a correlation has been found between copepods' presence and <a href="Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a> in untreated water, because the cholera bacteria attach to the surfaces of planktonic animals. The larvae of the <a href="Guinea_worm" class="mw-redirect" title="Guinea worm">guinea worm</a> must develop within a copepod's digestive tract before being transmitted to humans. The risk of infection with these diseases can be reduced by filtering out the copepods (and other matter), for example with a <a href="Cloth_filter" title="Cloth filter">cloth filter</a>.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a>

Copepods have been used successfully in <a href="Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a> to control disease-bearing <a href="Mosquitoes" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosquitoes">mosquitoes</a> such as <a href="Aedes_aegypti" title="Aedes aegypti">Aedes aegypti</a> that transmit <a href="Dengue" class="mw-redirect" title="Dengue">dengue</a> fever and other <a href="List_of_parasites_of_humans" title="List of parasites of humans">human parasitic diseases</a>.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a>

The copepods can be added to water-storage containers where the mosquitoes breed.<a href="#cite_note-timesept2010-40">[40]</a> Copepods, primarily of the genera <a href="Mesocyclops" title="Mesocyclops">Mesocyclops</a> and Macrocyclops (such as <a href="Macrocyclops_albidus" title="Macrocyclops albidus">Macrocyclops albidus</a>), can survive for periods of months in the containers, if the containers are not completely drained by their users. They attack, kill, and eat the younger first- and second-<a href="Instar" title="Instar">instar</a> larvae of the mosquitoes. This <a href="Biological_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological control">biological control</a> method is complemented by community trash removal and recycling to eliminate other possible mosquito-breeding sites. Because the water in these containers is drawn from uncontaminated sources such as rainfall, the risk of contamination by cholera bacteria is small, and in fact no cases of cholera have been linked to copepods introduced into water-storage containers. Trials using copepods to control container-breeding mosquitoes are underway in several other countries, including <a href="Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a> and the southern <a href="United_States" title="United States">United States</a>. The method, though, would be very ill-advised in areas where the guinea worm is endemic.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Incidental,_religious_curiosa">Incidental, religious curiosa</h3></div>

The presence of copepods in the <a href="New_York_City_water_supply_system" title="New York City water supply system">New York City water supply system</a> has caused problems for some <a href="Jewish" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish">Jewish</a> people who observe <a href="Kashrut" title="Kashrut">kashrut</a>. Copepods, being crustaceans, are not kosher, nor are they quite small enough to be ignored as nonfood microscopic organisms, since some specimens can be seen with the naked eye. Hence, large specimens are certainly non-Kosher. However, some species are visible to the naked eye, but are small enough that they only appear as little white specks. These are problematic, as it is a question as to whether they are considered visible enough to be non-Kosher.

When a group of <a href="Rabbis" class="mw-redirect" title="Rabbis">rabbis</a> in <a href="Brooklyn%2C_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Brooklyn, New York">Brooklyn, New York</a>, discovered these copepods in the summer of 2004, they triggered such debate in rabbinic circles that some observant Jews felt compelled to buy and install filters for their water.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> The water was ruled kosher by <a href="Posek" title="Posek">posek</a> <a href="Yisrael_Belsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Yisrael Belsky">Yisrael Belsky</a>, chief posek of the <a href="Orthodox_Union" title="Orthodox Union">OU</a> and one of the most scientifically literate poskim of his time.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> Meanwhile, Rabbi <a href="Dovid_Feinstein" title="Dovid Feinstein">Dovid Feinstein</a>, based on the ruling of Rabbi <a href="Yosef_Shalom_Elyashiv" title="Yosef Shalom Elyashiv">Yosef Shalom Elyashiv</a> - the two widely considered to be the greatest poskim of their time - ruled it was not kosher until filtered.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> Several major kashrus organizations (e.g <a href="Orthodox_Union_Kosher" title="Orthodox Union Kosher">OU Kashrus</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> and <a href="Star-K" title="Star-K">Star-K</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a>) require tap water to have filters.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h3></div>

The <a href="Nickelodeon" title="Nickelodeon">Nickelodeon</a> television series <a href="SpongeBob_SquarePants" title="SpongeBob SquarePants">SpongeBob SquarePants</a> features a copepod named <a href="Plankton_and_Karen" title="Plankton and Karen">Sheldon J. Plankton</a> as a recurring character.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a>

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<ul><li><a href="Particle_(ecology)" title="Particle (ecology)">Particle (ecology)</a></li>

<li><a href="World_Association_of_Copepodologists" title="World Association of Copepodologists">World Association of Copepodologists</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-timesjul2006-41"><a href="#cite_ref-timesjul2006_41-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFAnthony_DePalma2006" class="citation news cs1">Anthony DePalma (July 20, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/20/nyregion/20water.html?pagewanted=all">"New York's water supply may need filtering"</a>. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150209183004/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/20/nyregion/20water.html?pagewanted=all">Archived</a> from the original on February 9, 2015. Retrieved October 12, 2010.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRamamurthyBhattacharya2011" class="citation book cs1">Ramamurthy, T.; Bhattacharya, S. K. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X1DI0Easu2YC">Epidemiological and Molecular Aspects on Cholera</a>. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 330. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781603272650</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFVu_Sinh_NamNguyen_Thi_YenTran_Vu_PongTruong_Uyen_Ninh2005" class="citation journal cs1">Vu Sinh Nam; Nguyen Thi Yen; Tran Vu Pong; Truong Uyen Ninh; Le Quyen Mai; Le Viet Lo; Le Trung Nghia; Ahmet Bektas; Alistair Briscombe; John G. Aaskov; Peter A. Ryan & Brian H. Kay (1 January 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ajtmh.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15728869">"Elimination of dengue by community programs using Mesocyclops (Copepoda) against Aedes aegypti in central Vietnam"</a>. <a href="American_Journal_of_Tropical_Medicine_and_Hygiene" class="mw-redirect" title="American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene">American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene</a>. 72 (1): 67–73. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4269%2Fajtmh.2005.72.67">10.4269/ajtmh.2005.72.67</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15728869">15728869</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFG._G._MartenJ._W._Reid2007" class="citation journal cs1">G. G. Marten; J. W. Reid (2007). "Cyclopoid copepods". Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association. 23 (2 Suppl): 65–92. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2987%2F8756-971X%282007%2923%5B65%3ACC%5D2.0.CO%3B2">10.2987/8756-971X(2007)23[65:CC]2.0.CO;2</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17853599">17853599</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7645668">7645668</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oukosher.org/blog/consumer-kosher/ou-fact-sheet-on-nyc-water-august-13-2004/">"OU Fact Sheet on NYC Water"</a>. Orthodox Union Kosher Certification. <a href="New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>: <a href="Orthodox_Union" title="Orthodox Union">Orthodox Union</a>. August 13, 2004. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130528115548/http://oukosher.org/blog/consumer-kosher/ou-fact-sheet-on-nyc-water-august-13-2004/">Archived</a> from the original on May 28, 2013. Retrieved May 1, 2013.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> Berger, Joseph (November 7, 2004) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2004/11/07/nyregion/the-waters-fine-but-is-it-kosher.html?_r=0">"The Water's Fine, But Is It Kosher?"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170818093244/http://www.nytimes.com/2004/11/07/nyregion/the-waters-fine-but-is-it-kosher.html?_r=0">Archived</a> 2017-08-18 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, The New York Times

</li>

<li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBleich2012" class="citation book cs1">Bleich, Judah David (February 2, 2012). "Chapter 7 New York City Water". Contemporary Halachic problems, Vol. 6. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1602801950</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oukosher.org/faqs/nyc-water/">"NYC Tap Water Kosher Questions? OU Kosher Certification FAQs"</a>. OU Kosher Certification. Retrieved 2023-08-03.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.star-k.org/articles/kashrus-kurrents/5692/hot-off-the-hotline/">"Hot Off the Hotline | STAR-K Kosher Certification"</a>. www.star-k.org. 23 August 2018. Retrieved 2023-08-03.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFWilson2002" class="citation news cs1">Wilson, Amy (February 12, 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140610060614/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-82792771.html">"Stephen Hillenburg created the undersea world of SpongeBob"</a>. <a href="Orange_County_Register" class="mw-redirect" title="Orange County Register">Orange County Register</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-82792771.html">the original</a> on June 10, 2014.</cite>

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Copepoda" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Copepoda">Copepoda</a>.</div></div>

</div>

<div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="Wikispecies" title="Wikispecies">Wikispecies</a> has information related to <a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Copepoda" class="extiw external" title="wikispecies:Copepoda">Copepoda</a>.</div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080530091648/http://www.tafi.org.au/zooplankton/imagekey/copepoda/index.html">Copepod fact sheet – Guide to the marine zooplankton of south eastern Australia</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://copepodes.obs-banyuls.fr/en/">Diversity and geographical distribution of pelagic copepoda</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060216092206/http://www.nmnh.si.edu/iz/copepod/">Copepod World</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://neocop.biotupe.org">Neotropical Copepoda Database Project</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090629003724/http://copepod.ruc.dk/main.htm">The World Copepod Culture Database</a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Plankton118" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Plankton" title="Plankton">Plankton</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">About <a href="Plankton" title="Plankton">plankton</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">Algal bloom</a></li>

<li><a href="CLAW_hypothesis" title="CLAW hypothesis">CLAW hypothesis</a></li>

<li>High lipid content microalgae</li>

<li><a href="Holoplankton" title="Holoplankton">Holoplankton</a></li>

<li><a href="Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Marine microorganisms</a></li>

<li><a href="Meroplankton" title="Meroplankton">Meroplankton</a></li>

<li><a href="Mycoplankton" title="Mycoplankton">Mycoplankton</a></li>

<li><a href="Milky_seas_effect" title="Milky seas effect">Milky seas effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li>

<li><a href="Planktivore" title="Planktivore">Planktivore</a></li>

<li><a href="Planktology" title="Planktology">Planktology</a></li>

<li><a href="Spring_bloom" title="Spring bloom">Spring bloom</a></li>

<li><a href="Thin_layers_(oceanography)" title="Thin layers (oceanography)">Thin layers</a></li>

</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By size</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="List_of_eukaryotic_picoplankton_species" title="List of eukaryotic picoplankton species">Eukaryotic picoplankton</a></li>

<li><a href="Heterotrophic_picoplankton" title="Heterotrophic picoplankton">Heterotrophic picoplankton</a></li>

<li><a href="Marine_microplankton" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine microplankton">Marine microplankton</a></li>

<li><a href="Microalgae" title="Microalgae">Microphyte (microalgae)</a></li>

<li><a href="Nanophytoplankton" title="Nanophytoplankton">Nanophytoplankton</a></li>

<li><a href="Photosynthetic_picoplankton" title="Photosynthetic picoplankton">Photosynthetic picoplankton</a></li>

<li><a href="Picobiliphyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Picobiliphyte">Picobiliphyte</a></li>

<li><a href="Picoeukaryote" title="Picoeukaryote">Picoeukaryote</a></li>

<li><a href="Picoplankton" title="Picoplankton">Picoplankton</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Bacterioplankton" title="Bacterioplankton">Bacterioplankton</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aeromonas_salmonicida" title="Aeromonas salmonicida">Aeromonas salmonicida</a></li>

<li><a href="Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">Cyanobacteria</a></li>

<li><a href="Cyanobiont" title="Cyanobiont">Cyanobiont</a></li>

<li><a href="Cyanotoxin" title="Cyanotoxin">Cyanotoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Enteric_redmouth_disease" title="Enteric redmouth disease">Enteric redmouth disease</a></li>

<li><a href="Flavobacterium" title="Flavobacterium">Flavobacterium</a></li>

<li><a href="Flavobacterium_columnare" title="Flavobacterium columnare">Flavobacterium columnare</a></li>

<li><a href="Pelagibacter_ubique" class="mw-redirect" title="Pelagibacter ubique">Pelagibacter ubique</a></li>

<li><a href="Marine_bacteriophage" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine bacteriophage">Marine bacteriophage</a></li>

<li><a href="Pelagibacterales" class="mw-redirect" title="Pelagibacterales">SAR11 clade</a></li>

<li><a href="Streptococcus_iniae" title="Streptococcus iniae">Streptococcus iniae</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">Phytoplankton</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Auxospore" title="Auxospore">Auxospore</a></li>

<li><a href="Axodine" title="Axodine">Axodine</a></li>

<li><a href="Bacteriastrum" title="Bacteriastrum">Bacteriastrum</a></li>

<li><a href="Chaetoceros" title="Chaetoceros">Chaetoceros</a></li>

<li><a href="Chaetocerotaceae" title="Chaetocerotaceae">Chaetocerotaceae</a></li>

<li><a href="Coccolithophore" title="Coccolithophore">Coccolithophore</a></li>

<li><a href="Emiliania_huxleyi" class="mw-redirect" title="Emiliania huxleyi">Emiliania huxleyi</a></li>

<li><a href="Eustigmatophyte" title="Eustigmatophyte">Eustigmatophyte</a></li>

<li><a href="Frustule" title="Frustule">Frustule</a></li>

<li><a href="Stramenopile" title="Stramenopile">Stramenopile</a></li>

<li><a href="Nannochloropsis" title="Nannochloropsis">Nannochloropsis</a></li>

<li><a href="Navicula" title="Navicula">Navicula</a></li>

<li><a href="Prasinophyceae" class="mw-redirect" title="Prasinophyceae">Prasinophyceae</a></li>

<li><a href="Raphidophyte" title="Raphidophyte">Raphidophyte</a></li>

<li><a href="Thalassiosira_pseudonana" title="Thalassiosira pseudonana">Thalassiosira pseudonana</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Diatom" title="Diatom">Diatom orders</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Coscinodiscophyceae" title="Coscinodiscophyceae">Centrales</a></li>

<li><a href="Pennales" title="Pennales">Pennales</a>

<ul><li>Classes: <a href="Coscinodiscophyceae" title="Coscinodiscophyceae">Coscinodiscophyceae</a></li>

<li><a href="Fragilariophyceae" title="Fragilariophyceae">Fragilariophyceae</a></li>

<li><a href="Diatom" title="Diatom">Bacillariophyceae</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Flagellate" title="Flagellate">Flagellates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Brevetoxin" title="Brevetoxin">Brevetoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Choanoflagellate" title="Choanoflagellate">Choanoflagellates</a></li>

<li><a href="Dinoflagellate" title="Dinoflagellate">Dinoflagellates</a></li>

<li><a href="Flagellum" title="Flagellum">Flagellum</a></li>

<li><a href="Pfiesteria_piscicida" title="Pfiesteria piscicida">Pfiesteria piscicida</a></li>

<li><a href="Saxitoxin" title="Saxitoxin">Saxitoxin</a></li>

<li><a href="Symbiodinium" title="Symbiodinium">Symbiodinium</a></li>

<li><a href="Velvet_(fish_disease)" title="Velvet (fish disease)">Velvet (fish disease)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Zooplankton" title="Zooplankton">Zooplankton</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Chaetognatha" title="Chaetognatha">Chaetognatha</a></li>

<li><a href="Ciguatera" class="mw-redirect" title="Ciguatera">Ciguatera</a></li>

<li><a href="Ctenophora" title="Ctenophora">Ctenophora</a></li>

<li><a href="Gelatinous_zooplankton" title="Gelatinous zooplankton">Gelatinous zooplankton</a></li>

<li><a href="Ichthyoplankton" title="Ichthyoplankton">Ichthyoplankton</a></li>

<li><a href="Jellyfish" title="Jellyfish">Jellyfish</a></li>

<li><a href="Marine_larval_ecology" title="Marine larval ecology">Marine larvae</a></li>

<li><a href="Crustacean_larva" title="Crustacean larva">Crustacean larvae</a></li>

<li><a href="Salmon_louse" title="Salmon louse">Salmon louse</a></li>

<li><a href="Sea_louse" title="Sea louse">Sea louse</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">